Itable to evaluate certain aspects of metabolization by hepatocytes. In summary, our findings suggest that non-biodegradable NPs persist in cells and may cause cell damage. Due to the localization of the NPs in lysosomes, as supported by our data on fluorescent labelled particles, it is necessary to investigate their effect on lysosomes. Lysosomes are potential targets for drug-induced damage, such as for drug-induced lysosomal phospholipidosis resulting in lysosomal dys-function [46].AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Sandra Blass and Claudia Meindl for excellent technical assistance, as well as Daniel Portsmouth for critically reading the manuscript.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: MM EF LF. Performed the experiments: MM MA CS. Analyzed the data: MM RR EF LF. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ER CS LF. Wrote the paper: MM EF 23727046 LF.
Avian Influenza (AI) is a type A Influenza virus and zoonotic Title Loaded From File pathogen of significant economic and public health concern. Of particular interest is the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 subtype. Emerging in 1997, it has been responsible for the deaths of millions of birds globally and continues to persist at endemic levels in some countries [1]. The HPAI H5N1 subtype is also capable of crossing the species barriers into human populations [2]. To date, HPAI H5N1 has not been detected in the U.S., though several other HPAI and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) subtypes have surfaced over the years in bird populations which have cost millions of dollars in response and recovery efforts[3,4]. In the spring of 2004, the Title Loaded From File Delmarva Peninsula, regions of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, experienced an LPAI H7N2 outbreak that resulted in the culling of 378,000 birds [5,6]. This location is of interest when it comes to AI surveillance for several reasons. Delmarva and the Chesapeake Bay coincide with the final significant merging zone of the Atlantic Migratory Flyway serving waterfowl, the natural reservoirs for influenza A viruses, from the far reaches of the Arctic Ocean, Northwest Territories ofCanada, and Greenland [7]. In 1998, a survey of free flying resident ducks on the Eastern Shore of Maryland revealed that almost 14 of the sampled population was positive for AI, representing nine different subtype combinations [8]. Another study reported that shorebirds migrating through the Delaware Bay had the highest frequency of AI viruses compared to similar populations along the Atlantic flyway [9]. Delmarva is also within close proximity to the live bird markets of the Northeast, which have been susceptible to AI outbreaks in the past [10]. Disease surveillance and prevention are critical as the U.S. is the world’s leading producer of poultry meat and the second largest poultry meat exporter and egg producer, valuing the industry at over 35.6 billion a year in 2010 [11]. Delmarva has a dense commercial poultry industry with over 1,500 broiler operations, placing Maryland at eighth in the nation’s top broiler producing states in 2011 [12]. Ownership of backyard poultry is also becoming a fast growing trend for many Americans, which make up a diverse community with varying education and management practices. These factors support the need for ongoing surveillance research and biosecurity education to minimize the costsBiosecurity in Maryland Backyard Poultryassociated with quarantines, depopulation, loss of production time, and international trade restr.Itable to evaluate certain aspects of metabolization by hepatocytes. In summary, our findings suggest that non-biodegradable NPs persist in cells and may cause cell damage. Due to the localization of the NPs in lysosomes, as supported by our data on fluorescent labelled particles, it is necessary to investigate their effect on lysosomes. Lysosomes are potential targets for drug-induced damage, such as for drug-induced lysosomal phospholipidosis resulting in lysosomal dys-function [46].AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Sandra Blass and Claudia Meindl for excellent technical assistance, as well as Daniel Portsmouth for critically reading the manuscript.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: MM EF LF. Performed the experiments: MM MA CS. Analyzed the data: MM RR EF LF. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ER CS LF. Wrote the paper: MM EF 23727046 LF.
Avian Influenza (AI) is a type A Influenza virus and zoonotic pathogen of significant economic and public health concern. Of particular interest is the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 subtype. Emerging in 1997, it has been responsible for the deaths of millions of birds globally and continues to persist at endemic levels in some countries [1]. The HPAI H5N1 subtype is also capable of crossing the species barriers into human populations [2]. To date, HPAI H5N1 has not been detected in the U.S., though several other HPAI and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) subtypes have surfaced over the years in bird populations which have cost millions of dollars in response and recovery efforts[3,4]. In the spring of 2004, the Delmarva Peninsula, regions of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, experienced an LPAI H7N2 outbreak that resulted in the culling of 378,000 birds [5,6]. This location is of interest when it comes to AI surveillance for several reasons. Delmarva and the Chesapeake Bay coincide with the final significant merging zone of the Atlantic Migratory Flyway serving waterfowl, the natural reservoirs for influenza A viruses, from the far reaches of the Arctic Ocean, Northwest Territories ofCanada, and Greenland [7]. In 1998, a survey of free flying resident ducks on the Eastern Shore of Maryland revealed that almost 14 of the sampled population was positive for AI, representing nine different subtype combinations [8]. Another study reported that shorebirds migrating through the Delaware Bay had the highest frequency of AI viruses compared to similar populations along the Atlantic flyway [9]. Delmarva is also within close proximity to the live bird markets of the Northeast, which have been susceptible to AI outbreaks in the past [10]. Disease surveillance and prevention are critical as the U.S. is the world’s leading producer of poultry meat and the second largest poultry meat exporter and egg producer, valuing the industry at over 35.6 billion a year in 2010 [11]. Delmarva has a dense commercial poultry industry with over 1,500 broiler operations, placing Maryland at eighth in the nation’s top broiler producing states in 2011 [12]. Ownership of backyard poultry is also becoming a fast growing trend for many Americans, which make up a diverse community with varying education and management practices. These factors support the need for ongoing surveillance research and biosecurity education to minimize the costsBiosecurity in Maryland Backyard Poultryassociated with quarantines, depopulation, loss of production time, and international trade restr.
